Native Americans in California Missions Essay

Spanish needed to colonize some of America, much the same as the Europeans. Building strict based Missions all through California was a path for them to keep up extreme social, political, and monetary control. Spanish voyagers showed up on the fringe of California during the sixteenth century. The absolute first Franciscan crucial inherent San Diego during 1769. By 1833, twenty two Spanish Missions existed from Southern California to Northern California. Local Americans made up around 33% of the individuals who lived and worked at the Missions. There were an expected 310,000 Indians living in California during the sixteenth century. The Spanish furnished the Native Americans with the necessities, for example, food, dress, and sanctuary. Despite the fact that the California Missions had the correct goals of accommodating the Native Americans, the Spanish acted in an unfeeling and unreasonable manner. Junipero Serra showed up in San Diego in 1768 and lead a gathering of Franciscans to discover property and all the more significantly, laborers. He greeted the Native Americans wholeheartedly and open entryways. In an essential record composed by Junipero Serra himself, he conceded that he utilized the Native Americans exclusively for work. Be that as it may, he said that furnishing them with food and sanctuary makes up for their difficult work. â€Å"So if families other than Indian originate from that point, it will fill a similar need very wellâ€that is, on the off chance that we can accommodate them†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Serra). Serra’s safeguards express that he regarded the Natives’ culture. Notwithstanding, his criticizers contend that he utilized power to ask the Native Americans to live at the Missions without wanting to. In spite of the fact that the Natives didn't concur with Serra’s convictions and activities, they were extremely conscious generally. For the individuals who didn't regard Serra got physical discipline with â€Å"whips, chains, and stocks to authorize strict obedience† (Serra). Junipero Serra was an incredible pioneer who ensured the California Missions were all together. The California Mission had commendable goals and plans for the Native Americans. The Spanish invited them into their ‘homes’ and furnished them with the fundamentals, for example, food, attire, and haven. In any case, living at the Missions had its results. The Native Americans had to change their whole ways of life †from their convictions, their day by day schedules, to the manner in which they dressed and what they ate. In spite of the fact that anthropologists led that some Native Americans making the most of their new lives, in excess of 80% would not change over their lifestyles (Sandos, 13). For a great many years, the Natives were acclimated with their own way of life and convictions, and out of nowhere, everything was taken away from them. Indeed, even their own character was detracted from them. The Franciscans furnished every person with Spanish names which were to be utilized rather than their local original names. â€Å"The missions were not operators of purposeful subjugation, but instead quick and accordingly fierce social and social change† (Archibald, 24). The Native Americans wound up turning out to be charge pay residents alongside being under Spanish wing twenty-four hours per day, seven days per week. The Franciscans had altogether different convictions and customs from the Native Americans. The Native Americans had to change over their religion to Roman Catholics. The Native Americans were all the more a â€Å"spiritual† bunch as opposed to a strict gathering. Rather than having confidence in exemplified figures, for example, Jesus, they accepted spirits exist in their inclination. Local Americans feed their vitality off of nature. They accepted that they are secured by the Mother Nature that encompassed them. The Spanish utilized religion to clarify their activities, which made it ‘okay’ for them to change over the Native American’s convictions since they were sponsored up by their god (California). Each individual living and working at the Mission must be formally sanctified through water as a transitional experience. On Sundays and occasions everybody was committed to go to chapel and love. The Natives had to remember Catholic ceremonies, tunes, and sacred texts. Petition kept going four hours on Sundays and banquet days. All the time on run of the mill days, supplication endured two hours. Catholicism was a tremendous piece of living at the Missions. The Missions were encircled by Spanish fighters so everybody was observed intently. When the Native Americans acknowledged the Spanish way of life, it was about difficult to get away. Maybe they were held without wanting to. A couple of sources contrast the treatment of Native Americans with servitude (Archibald, 48). Servitude is characterized as a monetary abuse that benefits just the slave-proprietor. In the California Missions, the Native Americans worked exclusively to give and keep up a specific way of life for the Spanish. Other than insignificant food and asylum, the Native America’s characteristic human rights were taken from them. Local America ladies made dress, arranged dinners, tidied up the rooms, and whatever local tasks should have been done at the Mission. Local American moms even needed to think about Spanish kids as opposed to concentrating all alone (Mission). The Native American men needed to chase for food and assemble new Missions. Likewise, they learned carpentry, leatherworkers, smiths, and homestead work. The Franciscans controlled their days into a thorough calendar declared by chapel chimes (Archibald, 104). On the off chance that the laborers were not finished with their errands by the rings of the congregation chimes, they would endure significant outcomes. The Franciscans didn't see their activities as detainment since they accepted that the provision of food and sanctuary makes up for Natives’ difficult work. As a general rule, the Missions were not a spot to carry on with an existence of simplicity nor was it a spot to procure individual fortune and thriving. The Native Americans were not attempted to death like the slaves in southern United States right now. Be that as it may, the exacting guideline, savage and bizarre disciplines and constrained new customs are amazingly insensitive acts. As per Julio Cesar, â€Å"When I was a kid the treatment given to the Indians at the Mission was bad by any stretch of the imagination. We were helpless before the chairman, who requested us to be flagellated at whatever point and anyway he took notion† (Mission). Each Mission had two clerics. One priest’s obligations were to lecture and educate about religion. The different priest’s obligations were carefully on the work field. He educated and gave the Native Americans and different laborers their obligations. The way of life in the California Missions was set in a thorough timetable so it was about unthinkable for the Native Americans to take a break or getaway the difficulty. The Natives opposed colonization after only a brief timeframe living and working at the Missions. There were a couple of destructive uprisings led by the Native Americans. They pulverized Mission property and even took steps to murder clerics. The most notorious assault happened in San Diego. On November 4, 1775, several men totally decimated the Cuiamac Rancheria Mission of San Diego. The men likewise slaughtered three Hispanics, including the Father, Padre Jaime (Sandos, 92). Moreover, in 1824, another extraordinary Indian insubordination in California happened at the Missions of Barbara. A huge piece of the Mission building was destroyed by a huge fire. Around the same time, many Native Americans assaulted the Spanish safeguards and warriors. Pioneers of the disobedience were seriously rebuffed. Seven were executed and the others were detained or required to do much crueler work. The Natives revolted due to their poor treatment and constrained work authorized by the warriors and Fathers (Sandos, 73). These uprisings were among the numerous others all through the sixteenth century in the California missions. This demonstrates the Native Americans were enraged about getting various convictions and work constrained onto them. The Spanish pilgrims made a great deal of medical issues prosper all through California. Not long after the appearance of Spanish pioneers, infections spread from Southern California to Northern California so Native American fatalities elevated. Profoundly irresistible sicknesses, for example, smallpox, measles, and syphilis executed a huge number of Native Americans, particularly kids, so the Indian populace dropped definitely (Sandos, 64). Around 60% of the Mission Native Americans’ passing was expected to presented infections. In only a couple of decades, the Native American populace in California diminished from 310,000 to around 100,000. Since the California Missions held numerous habitations, individuals lived in such limited spaces which made infectious sicknesses spread quickly. So as to save the populace at a consistent rate for enough laborers, Mission pioneers isolated Native American youngsters from their folks to keep up the children’s wellbeing to spare them to work at the Missions as they got more established (California). The Natives were enraged that their families were being discrete. Moms were not there to think about their youngsters, so the Native kids were all alone. There was an absence of doctors to think about the evil so not every person would benefit from outside intervention. Illnesses were by all account not the only motivation behind why the Native populace dropped radically. They experienced thorough changes in diet so their bodies were not used to the food they were eating. What's more, lack of healthy sustenance caused poisons in their bodies. Also, the extreme requesting physical work is a factor that added to their failure to conquer the infection. Passing rates were higher than birth rates so the Mission needed to continue enlisting various clans all through California (Mission). By 1834, there were just around 15,000 Native American inhabitants in the twenty two Missions. The Spanish were just in contact with the Native Americans for individual addition. The Franciscans kept up complete monetary, social, and political control all through California. Not many Native Ame

Workforce issues in nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Workforce issues in nursing - Research Paper Example A few workforce accounts have showed up in the most recent decade to portray the reason and impact of the general nursing shortage on medicinal services. Most of these investigations express that enrolled medical caretakers comprise of the prime social insurance calling, with 2,000,000 positions (Sherman, 2006). A report recorded by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations expresses that, 126,000 opportunities in nursing are not filled in human services foundations (Sherman, 2006). This implies, a general size of 13% for the positions isn't involved (Sherman, 2006). The State University of New York reports that, deficiencies in nursing were cited as a significant point by 90% of the nations in question (Sherman, 2006). Few female attendants join the calling because of the accessibility of business chances for ladies in male controlled fields. Hardly any understudies enrolled into nursing alternatives as there was a perceived staff deficiency, and a maturing work power going for retirement or jobs that are distressing (Hart, 2006). The NSSRN reports that, the ordinary time of the whole enlisted attendants populace was foreseen at 45 years old in 2000, which is the greatest age since the examination was started (Buerhaus, Staiger, and Auerbach, 2000). Buerhaus, Staiger, and Auerbach (2000) keep on showing that not very many staff individuals were underneath 40 years old. This clarifies why a colossal level of people have an adverse mentality towards the nursing calling. The degree of work fulfillment varies on where medical attendants play out their obligations. Medical caretakers utilized in emergency clinics experience poor employment fulfillment. Imbalanced staffing, powerful occupations, extra time, and lacking wages are cited as head supporters of deficiency in nursing (Sherman, 2006). Throughout my calling, I have encountered a ton of medical caretakers staying at work past 40 hours with patients. I have additionally experienced

The Enneagram of Personality

The Enneagram of Personality Theories Personality Psychology Print What Is the Enneagram of Personality? By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on July 01, 2019 More in Theories Personality Psychology Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In This Article Table of Contents Expand Overview History How It Works Nine Enneagram Types How It's Used What the Research Says View All Back To Top The Enneagram is a typology system that describes human personality as a number of interconnected personality types. While it has become popular within spirituality and business disciplines, there has been limited research on its use and it is not widely accepted in the field of evidence-based psychology.  Verywell / Jessica Olah What Is It? The Enneagram consists of a nine-point diagram. Each point represents a personality type. The Enneagram figure or diagram is made up of three elements. The outer part is made up of a circle, which then contains a triangle and an irregular hexagon. At its simplest, the Enneagram represents nine different personality types. Beyond the basic nine personality types, the system grows much more complex and includes 27 different subtypes as well as three key centers focused on action, feeling, and thinking. Most people may find elements of themselves in each of the types, but will usually identify with one of the types the most. The type that best describes you is known as your basic personality type. Each type is characterized by a number of traits that dominate the individual’s overall personality. This model also identifies each types greatest fears as well as the coping mechanisms that people use to deal with those anxieties. According to the Enneagram Institute, most Enneagram theorists believe that people are born with a dominant personality type which can then be shaped by environmental factors and experiences. These two forces also tend to influence each other. Inborn traits and characteristics help shape how people respond to their experiences, and the environment plays a role in shaping how personality is formed and expressed. According to Enneagram theory, people do not change from one basic type of personality to another. However, not all elements of personality are always expressedâ€"people are always fluctuating depending on factors such as their health and habits. As you read through the descriptions of each type, you see yourself in several of them or even all of them. You might have many of these traits, but the Enneagram suggests that it is your dominant type that is the most important. It is important to remember that the Enneagram does not suggest that any type is better or more desirable than another. Whether the traits associated with each type are seen as a help or a hindrance depends on the individual and their culture. For example, having more achievement-focused or self-reliant traits may be helpful for those living in individualistic cultures, while traits such as loyalty and caregiving may be more beneficial for those in collectivist cultures. Personality and Why It Matters History The exact origins of the Enneagram are something of a mystery. It may date back to the time of the ancient Greeks, although its exact history is disputed. It is a synthesis of a number of different spiritual traditions, including elements of Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. A philosopher and mystic by the name of George Ivanovich Gurdjieff is credited with bringing the Enneagram figure to the attention of the world, although he did not use it to categorize personality types. Oscar Ichazo, the founder of a school for human potential and self-development, is who assigned different personality types to each of the nine positions in the Enneagram diagram. Later, psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo expanded the theory to expand the nine types in psychological terms. How Does It Work? Each of the nine personality types is characterized by a set of dominant behaviors, motivations, and fears. The goal of this system is that by better understanding your type, you’ll be able to make the most of your strengths and address your weakness so that you can achieve your full potential. Because the Enneagram addresses faults and weaknesses as well as strengths, it is often thought of as a tool for self-analysis and self-improvement. By recognizing these areas, people can work toward becoming more self-aware and achieving greater self-actualization. After taking an Enneagram test, respondents learn which basic type best describes their personality. Depending upon the test, respondents may also discover one or two additional types that also contribute to their overall personality.   While the Enneagram is designed to identify your basic personality type, no one is simply a single pure type. The Enneagram Institute states that all people are a mix of their basic type as well as at least one or two adjacent types. These other types that contribute to your personality are known as your wing. While it is the basic type that dominates your personality, the wings add dimensional elements. So a person with a Type 4 dominant personality would have Type 3 and Type 5 as their wings.  These adjacent personality types may influence overall personality, but they do not change a person’s basic type. Some Enneagram theorists believe that personality is composed of a dominant type and one adjacent wing, while other theorists suggest that there are two wings. The official Enneagram site suggests that this is an area in need of further research. The Nine Enneagram Types Each of the nine types has its own set of potential strengths and weaknesses.   1. Reformer Type 1s, or Reformers, are perfectionistic, purposeful, and self-controlled. They strive for integrity and have a fear of corruption. They have a very strong sense of what is the “right” and “wrong” way to do things. They are seen as highly principled, but they can also be seen as judgmental and uncompromising. 2. Helper Type 2s, or Helpers, are generous and people-pleasing. They have a strong desire to be loved, sometimes denying their own needs in order to make others happy. Helpers care about other people and tend to make friends easily. They tend to put a lot of energy into their relationships, but this is sometimes interpreted as neediness. They are genuine and are good listeners, which means that people often turn to them in times of need, but it also means that they overlook their own needs. 3. Achiever Much like Type 1s, Type 3s, or Achievers, are driven to excel. Their focus is often on being seen as successful and admirable by other people. While they tend to be image-conscious, they are also very adaptable. Because they are so focused on appearances, they are sometimes seen as overachieving workaholics. Achievers might be more focused on success than feelings, but they do tend to be good at what they do and communicate well. 4. Individualist Type 4s, or Individualists, can be dramatic and expressive. They have a strong sense of identity but can be temperamental or self-absorbed at times. Individualists are creative, forward-thinking, and highly expressive. One potential downside of this is that they can also be very emotional and focused on their own feelings. 5. Investigator Type 5s, or Investigators, are innovative and highly perceptive. They have a tendency to become isolated and detached. They are smart and logical and like to think deeply about things. Unfortunately, people often interpret their quiet and thoughtfulness as arrogance or conceit. They are good at being objective when approaching a problem, but this ability to stay detached also means that they sometimes struggle when dealing with emotions. 6. Loyalist Type 6s, or Loyalists, tend to be responsible and committed.  Because they are so loyal, they often enjoy long-lasting relationships. They are very trustworthy and devoted, but sometimes they let their worry get the best of them. One problem this type often faces is a tendency to dwell on the negative. They are highly aware of the world around them but can become overly suspicious and even anxious at times. 7. Enthusiast Type 7s, or Enthusiasts, are spontaneous, fun-loving, and versatile. People with this personality type tend to be extroverted - they to be social, stay busy, and meet new people. They can be highly adventurous and are always on the lookout for fun. However,  they can also be easily distracted and unfocused. They might start things without finishing them, but they are quick thinkers and are good at maintaining a positive attitude. 8. Challenger Type 8s, or Challengers, tend to be bold, dominating, and confrontational. They are decisive and self-confident. They enjoy being in control and their decisive nature means that they often succeed in leadership roles. However, they can sometimes be seen as domineering and aggressive. They will speak out and take action when they see a need for someone to step up and take control of a situation. 9. Peacemaker Type 9s, or Peacemakers, are agreeable and easy-going. People with this personality type are usually easy to get along with, but they can be self-effacing and complacent at times. They prefer it when everyone gets along and try to avoid conflict whenever possible. While this means they are great at promoting harmony in groups, but it sometimes means that they will go out of their way to avoid disagreements, including ignoring their own wants and needs just to ensure peace. How Is It Used? The Enneagram works by sorting people into these nine different types. The goal is to give insight not only into the individual’s own personality but also provide valuable information on how to better relate to other people. Possible Applications Personal growth and developmentInterpersonal communication, team building, and leadership developmentCreating successful relationships at work and in other life areas While the theory needs further research to validate its use, it has gained some popularity as a tool for building better relationships. By gaining insight into individual strengths and weaknesses, people can look for ways to better relate and communicate with their partner. The Enneagram is also sometimes used within the field of industrial-organizational psychology to help improve employee motivation and productivity. Businesses utilize the test to help their employees gain a greater understanding of group dynamics and interpersonal communication. What the Research Says The Enneagram has gained popularity in some areas but has also been criticized for being pseudoscientific. It is often described as being overly vague and difficult to test scientifically. Type descriptions have been criticized for being too general, almost Barnum-effect style statements that can sometimes seem more like horoscopes rather than empirically tested descriptions of personality. (The Barnum effect is a psychological phenomenon in which people rate personality descriptions as being highly accurate and individualized, even when they are so vague they can apply to almost anyone). While critics note that the system is rooted more in a semi-mystical ancient philosophy than in scientifically valid research, there is some evidence that the Enneagram has a use as a personality tool: A year-long investigation carried out in 2004 by researchers Saville and Holdsworth found that the Enneagram was comparable to other well-known and more accepted theories including the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five.One case study published in the journal Contemporary Family Therapy suggested that the Enneagram could be a useful tool within the context of counseling, helping to facilitate therapy and promote awareness in the counseling relationship.A study published in the Journal of Adult Development found that participants who took part in an Enneagram training program showed improvements in ego development and personal growth. Further research is needed to explore the Enneagram’s applicability and usefulness. A Word From Verywell The Enneagram has become better known in recent years thanks in part to the rising popularity of online personality tests. It is important to remember, however, that personality is complex and a simple online test is not enough to tell you everything about your own personality, motivations, behaviors, strengths, and weaknesses. Such tests can be fun and interesting, but be careful not to take your results too seriously. This sort of test can be a way to gain insight into your own personality and might be a starting point for gaining greater personal insight and self-awareness. The Riso-Hudson Enneagram Type Indicator (RHETI) can be found at the Enneagrams Institutes website. You can purchase a single-use code for $12 to take the test. Types of Personality Tests

Point of View of Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay

Point of View of â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† Point of view is â€Å"one of the most prominent and persistent concerns in modern treatments of the art of prose fiction† (Abrams 231). This essay will treat of how the story is told in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† what type of narrator tells it, and through whose perception the reader receives the tale – in other words, the point of view of this short story (Axelrod 336). In this story the mode or point of view by which the author presents the characters, dialogue, actions, etc. is that of a third-person narrator, who uses proper names and third-person pronouns to designate the various characteris in the tale: YOUNG GOODMAN BROWN came forth at sunset,†¦show more content†¦We find another example of the narrator feeling, thinking and perceiving what Goodman experiences while he is accompanying his travelling companion through the woods: As nearly as could be discerned, the second traveller was about fifty years old, apparently in the same rank of life as Goodman Brown, and bearing a considerable resemblance to him, though perhaps more in expression than features. Still, they might have been taken for father and son. And yet, though the elder person was as simply clad as the younger, and as simple in manner too, he had an indescribable air of one who knew the world, and would not have felt abashed at the governors dinner-table, or in King Williams court, were it possible that his affairs should call him thither. But the only thing about him, that could be fixed upon as remarkable, was his staff, which bore the likeness of a great black snake, so curiously wrought, that it might almost be seen to twist and wriggle itself like a living serpent. This, of course, must have been an ocular deception, assisted by the uncertain light. And when the companion departs: The young man sat a few moments by the road-side, applauding himself greatly, and thinking with how clear a conscience he should meet the minister, in his morning-walk, nor shrink from the eye of good old Deacon Gookin. 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The National Border Industrialization Program - 1370 Words

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The Growth Of The Entrepreneurial Process - 1788 Words

The Entrepreneurial process begins with the perception of the existence of opportunities or situations in which resources can be recombined for a potential profit. Thus entrepreneurs are opportunists, who discover opportunities in the existing market and use them for their benefit. (Shane 2003). Entrepreneurships usually take the form of Small to medium size enterprises usually abbreviated to SMEs. These SMEs are adaptable, grow more rapidly and have higher risks of failure. Entrepreneurship is important to the society as it contributes to the economy in several ways. It contributes by adding changes to the supply and demand side of the market. This change (innovation) brought about by entrepreneurs was observed by an economist J.A. Schumpeter (1934), who, in his The Theory of Economic Development has mentioned it as a form of creative destruction . Apart from their adding economic benefits, SMEs can also save economies from great depression. 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Baroque free essay sample

Baroque Art and Architecture, the style dominating the art and architecture of Europe and certain European colonies in the Americas throughout the 1600s, and in some places, until 1750. A number of its characteristics continue in the art and architecture of the first half of the 18th century, although this period is generally termed rococo (see Rococo Style) and corresponds roughly with King Louis XV of France. Manifestations of baroque art appear in virtually every country in Europe, ith other important centers in the Spanish and Portuguese settlements in the Americas and in other outposts. The term baroque also defines periods in literature and music. II DEFINITION The origins of the word baroque are not clear. It may have been derived from the Portuguese barocco or the Spanish barueco to indicate an irregularly shaped pearl. The word itself does not accurately define or even approximate the meaning of the style to which it refers. However, by the end of the 18th century baroque had entered the terminology of art criticism as an epithet leveled against 17th-century art, which any later critics regularly dismissed as too bizarre or strange to merit serious study. Writers such as the 19th-century Swiss cultural historian Jakob Burckhardt considered this style the decadent end of the Renaissance; his student Heinrich , in Principles of Art History (191 5; translated 1932), first pointed out the fundamental differences between the art of the 16th and 17th centuries, stating that baroque is neither a rise nor a decline from classic, but a totally different art. Baroque art encompasses vast regional distinctions. It may seem confusing, for xample, to label two such different artists as Rembrandt and Gianlorenzo Bernini as baroque; yet despite differences, they shared certain baroque elements, such as a preoccupation with the dramatic potential of light. A Historical Background Understanding the various forms of baroq ue art requires knowledge of its historical context. The 17th century could be called the first modern age. Human awareness of the world was continuously expanding. Many scientific discoveries influenced art; Galileos investigations of the planets, for example, account for astronomical accuracy in many paintings of the time. The assertion of the Polish astronomer Copernicus that the planets did not revolve around the earth was written by 1 530, published in 1 543, and only fully accepted after 1600. The realization that the earth was not at the center of the universe coincided in art with the rise of pure landscape painting devoid of human figures. The active trade and colonization policies of many European nations accounted for numerous portrayals of places and peoples that were exotic to Europeans. Religion determined many aspects of baroque art. The Roman Catholic church was a highly influential patron, and its Counter Reformation, movement to combat the spread of Protestantism, employed emotional, realistic, and dramatic art as a means ot propagating the taitn The simplicity sought by Protestantism in countries such as the Netherlands and northern Germany likewise explains the severity of the architectural styles in those areas. Political situations also influenced art. The absolute monarchies of France and Spain prompted the creation of works that reflected in their size and splendor the majesty of their kings, Louis XIV and Philip V. B Baroque characteristics Among the general characteristics of baroque art is a sense of movement, energy, nd tension (whether real or implied). Strong contrasts of light and shadow enhance the dramatic effects of many paintings and sculptures. Even baroque buildings, with their undulating walls and decorative surface elements, imply motion. Intense spirituality is often present in works of baroque art; in the Roman Catholic countries, for example, scenes of ecstasies, martyrdoms, or miraculous apparitions are common. Infinite space is often suggested in baroque paintings or sculptures; throughout the Renaissance and into the baroque period, painters sought a grander sense of space and truer depiction of perspective in their works. Realism is another integral feature of baroque art; the figures in paintings are not types but individuals with their own personalities. Artists of this time were concerned with the inner workings of the mind and attempted to portray the passions of the soul on the faces they painted and sculpted. The intensity and immediacy of baroque art and its individualism and detail†observed in such things as the convincing rendering of cloth and skin textures†make it one of the most compelling periods of Western art. C Early baroque styles The roots of baroque styles are found in the art of Italy, and especially in that of Rome in the late 16th century. A desire for greater clarity and simplification inspired a number of artists in their reaction against the anticlassical Mannerist style, with its subjective emphasis on distortion, asymmetry, bizarre Juxtapositions, and biting colors. Annibale Carracci and Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravaggio, were the two artists in the forefront of the early baroque. Caravaggios art is influenced by naturalism and the grand humanism of Michelangelo and the High Renaissance. His paintings often include types drawn from everyday life engaged in completely elievable activities, as well as heroic and tender depictions of religious and mythological subjects. The school that developed around Carracci, on the other hand, attempted to rid art of its mannered complications by returning to the High Renaissance principles of clarity, monumentality, and balance. This baroque classicism remained important throughout the century. A third baroque style developed in Rome about 1630, the so-called high baroque; it is generally considered the most characteristic mode of 17th-century art, with its exuberance, emotionalism, theatricality, and unrestrained energy. Ill BAROQUE ART IN ITALY In Italy painting, sculpture, and architecture evolved from Mannerism to an early baroque mode. This change followed the Council of Trents call in 1563 for art that would instruct and cultivate piety through simplicity. A Italian Baroque Painting Some of the first and most influential artists to undertake a systematic reform of the Mannerist style were ot the Carracci tamily. Annibale, his brother Agostino, and t cousin Ludovico were Bolognese artists who had an enormous impact on the art of the baroques greatest center, Rome. Annibale arrived there in 1595. Having already ecome famous for his frescoes in Bologna, he was commissioned to execute the ceiling painting (1597-1600) in the Galleria of Romes Farnese Palace, his most significant work and a key monument in the development of the classical or ideal, baroque manner, of which Annibale was the chief initiator. This style appealed to such artists as Guido Reni, Domenico Zampieri, called Domenichino, and Francesco Alban, who were trained by the Carracci at their workshop in Bologna. Other baroque classicists, such as the French painters Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, came from abroad to work in Rome. Also drawn to Rome was Caravaggio, who became the principal rival of Annibale. Works such as the Calling and the Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (1599? -1600, San Luigi dei Frances, Rome) found sympathetic response, and Caravaggio came to be the guiding spirit behind an entire school of baroque naturalists. Naturalism was spread throughout Italy in the first two decades of the 17th century by such native painters as Orazio Gentileschi and his daughter Artemisia, Bartolomeo Manfredi, and Caracciolo, called Battistello, and later by foreigners working in Italy, including the French painter Valentin de Boulogne, Gerrit an Honthorst from the Netherlands, and the Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera. Although of lesser importance in Italy after about 1630, baroque naturalism continued to have an enormous impact throughout the rest of the century in all parts of Europe. Another turning point in the history of baroque painting took place in the late 1620s. Many artists attempted to introduce greater liveliness and drama into their works to create illusions of limitless space (illusionism). From 1625 to 1627 Giovanni Lanfranco painted the enormous dome of the church of Sant Andrea della Valle in Rome with his Assumption of the Virgin. Although this fresco was inspired by Correggios Renaissance ceilings in Parma, it virtually overwhelmed contemporary spectators with its exuberant illusionistic effects and became one of the first high baroque masterpieces. Lanfrancos work in Rome (1613-1630) and in Naples (1634-1646) was fundamental to the development of illusionism in Italy. The illusionistic ceiling fresco was a particularly important medium for high baroque painters. Pietro Berrettini, called Pietro da Cortona, developed it to an extraordinary degree in works such as the ceiling (1633-1639) of the gran salone of Romes Barberini Palace. From 1676 to 1679 Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also called Baciccio, painted Adoration of the Name of Jesus on the ceiling of the GesÃ'Ëœ Church in Rome. From 1691 to 1694 Andrea Pozzo painted The Entrance of Saint Ignatius into Paradise for the ceiling of Sant Ignazio, Rome, with the same theatricality, drama, and emotion that had characterized high baroque painting throughout the century. B Italian Baroque Sculpture Anti-Mannerism in Italian sculpture is first seen in Saint Cecilia (1600, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome) by Stefano Maderno. Its simple curving lines represent a dramatic eparture from the more pronounced contortions of earlier works. It was Gianlorenzo Bernini, however, who dominated baroque sculpture in Rome. Among his early over- life-size group sculptures, Abduction of Proserpina (1621-1622) and Apollo and Daphne (1622 1624, both Galleria Borghese, Rome) display his virtuosity in the handling of marble, creating effects of realistic dramatic tension, strong light-and- dark contrasts, and the illusion of variegated colors. His Ecstasy of Saint Theresa (1645-1652, Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome) epitomizes the highly charged theatricality that is a hallmark of the baroque. Bernini was the favorite artist of the popes, for whom he did highly ambitious works in the Vatican. The huge baldachin, a pillared canopy (1624-1633), above the high altar in Saint Peters Church, as well as the Cathedra Petri (Chair of Saint Peter, 1657-1666) in the apse of the church, attest in their colossal size and precious materials (including marble and gilded bronze) to the sumptuous splendor of Roman Catholicism. Bernini also excelled in portraiture, as may be seen in such examples as Costanza Buonarelli (1635? , Bargello, Florence) and Pope Innocent X (1647? , Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, Rome). His only rival in this genre was the sculptor Alessandro Algardi. Fountains were among the principal types of baroque public monuments, and those by Bernini are among the most outstanding examples. Fountain of the Four Rivers (1648-1651) in Romes Piazza Navona startles the viewer with its mammoth statues and obelisk balanced almost precariously on ledges from which gush dramatic cascades of water. Bernini was also an important and influential architect; in addition to the vast colonnade (begun 1656) embracing Saint Peters Square, he designed such churches as Sant Andrea al Quirinale (1658-1670) in Rome. C Italian Baroque Architecture Among the first major architects of the early baroque was Carlo Maderno, who is known principally for his work on Saint Peters. Between 1606 and 1612 he built the nave extension and facade of this structure, begun approximately 100 years earlier by Donato Bramante. Aside from Bernini, the major architects of the Roman baroque were Francesco Borromini and, to a lesser extent, Carlo Rainaldi. Together they designed Sant Agnese (begun 1652) in Piazza Navona. The elegantly undulating facade of Borrominis San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1665-1667) in Rome, with its onvex and concave rhythms echoing those of the interior, might be called the quintessence of Italian baroque architecture. Building activity also occurred in centers outside Rome during the early decades of the 17th century. Francesco Maria Ricchino, in Milan, and Baldassare Longhena, in Venice, both designed central-plan churches. Longhenas Santa Maria della Salute (begun 1631) has been noted for its extravagantly ornate exterior and its superb site at the entrance to the Grand Canal. Especially theatrical is the work of Guarino Guarini in Turin. His Cappella della Santa Sindone (Chapel of the Holy Shroud, 1667-94) astounds the observer with its intricate geometric forms derived from Islamic buildings in the unusually high dome. IV BAROQUE ART IN SPAIN Although he is acknowledged as one of the great Spanish painters, the influence of El Grecos Mannerism was fairly slight in Spain. The early appearance of a naturalistic baroque style was due to an influence from Italy. A Spanish Baroque Painting Vincente Carducho, a Florentine artist, was influential in establishing a Counter Reformation anti-Mannerist painting style in central Spain. Juan Sanchez Cotan and Juan van der Hamen were botn expert at painting realistic still t li es that combine an influence from the Netherlands with that of Caravaggio. In Valencia, a naturalistic baroque mode is observed in the work of Francisco Ribalta, inspired by the art of both the Italian High Renaissance painter Titian and Jusepe de Ribera. Seville and Madrid became the two greatest centers of Spanish baroque art. For example, early in the 17th century, baroque characteristics emerged in the paintings of Juan de las Roelas, Francisco Pacheco, and Francisco de Herrera the Elder. In his early work, Francisco de Zurbaran, who settled in Seville in 1629, derived some of his inspiration from Flemish prints, but his most impressive baroque compositions are deeply moving for their direct and realistic approach to religious subject matter. Zurbaran worked almost exclusively for convents and monasteries. Late in his life his style was touched by the softening influence of Bartolom © Esteban Murillo. Works by Caravaggio were seen in Seville by 1603. Their popularity partially accounts for the strong realist influence on the work of Spains greatest baroque painter, Diego de Velazquez. In Seville Velazquez painted such earthy works as Old Woman Frying Eggs (1618, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh). In 1623 he moved to Madrid to serve as portraitist to Philip V, a post he retained throughout his life. His series of royal portraits culminated in The Maids of Honor (1656, Prado, Madrid), representing the royal family, court functionaries, and the artist himself. Velazquez was also noted for historical and mythological compositions and for his work as an architect and decorator. Two other important artists of Velazquezs generation were also from Andalucia† Alonso Cano and Murillo. Cano (also a sculptor and architect) is noted for his sensitive renderings of flesh, as in the Descent into Limbo (1650? , Los Angeles County Museum of Art), one of the few Spanish baroque treatments of the nude. Murillo specialized in sentimental genre paintings and renderings of the Immaculate Conception. The late baroque in Seville is best represented by Juan de Vald ©s Leal, whose two paintings (1672) of vanitas (reminders of mortality) subjects in the Hospital of La Caridad, Seville, are horrifying in their morbid, ultrarealistic depictions of skeletons and putrefying cadavers. In Madrid, the last generation of baroque painters includes Francisco Rizi, Juan Carreno de Miranda, and Claudio Coello, artists who cultivated a style based on the Italian high baroque. B Spanish Baroque Sculpture Italian art had little impact on Spanish baroque sculpture, which was essentially an outgrowth of the medieval woodcarving tradition. Realism and intense attention to detail characterize all Spanish wood sculpture; it is usually polychromed, and, at times, provided with glass eyes, hair, and garments. Among the most important works of Spanish baroque sculpture are numerous carved ood retables (altar pieces), many of considerable size and richness, produced by sculptor-architects. Of these, Gregorio Fernandez, who worked principally in Valladolid, was the major sculptor of central Spain, while the southern school is best represented by Juan Martinez Montan ©s and Juan de Mesa from Seville and Pedro de Mena and Alonso Cano working in Granada. C Spanish Baroque Architecture Spanish architecture of the early baroque often continues the pattern ot the muted severe style ot the monastery-palace ot El Escorial (1563-1582) near Madrid, as in the Buen Retiro Palace (begun 1631, now destroyed) in Madrid. Canos facade for Granada Cathedral (designed 1667) contains classical elements but, in its surface decoration, points the way to the development of the rococo style. The most ornate baroque buildings are found in Andalucia. Sevilles Hospital of Los Venerables Sacerdotes (1687-1697), designed by Leonardo de Figueroa, is typical. In the rest of the country the Churrigueresque style, a wildly exuberant baroque mode named for the Churriguera family of architects, is evident in richly adorned buildings in Barcelona, Madrid, and especially Salamanca. D Spanish Baroque in the New World The art of the New World in the 17th century followed lines similar to that of the Iberian countries. Among the major centers in Spanish America were Mexico, Guatemala (especially the city of Antigua Guatemala), and Peru (Cusco and Lima). The art of Brazil followed the patterns set by Portugal. In painting, the styles of Caravaggio, Zurbaran, and Murillo had tremendous impact. Paintings of the Cusco school combined indigenous decorative forms with European-like figures. Sculptural decoration from native sources also served as an ntegral part of the interiors and exteriors of the hundreds of baroque churches constructed in a flamboyant and exaggerated Churrigueresque mode, in all parts of the Spanish colonies at this time. V BAROQUE ART IN NORTHERN EUROPE The baroque spread rapidly to the countries of northern Europe from Italy, where most of the major masters went to study the manifestations of the new style. Each country, however, developed distinctive versions of the baroque, depending on its particular political, religious, and economic conditions. A Flemish Baroque The Flemish baroque is dominated by the brilliance of Peter Paul Rubens. His youthful painting style was formed from such diverse Italian sources as Caravaggio, the Carracci, and Michelangelo, evidenced by his Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus (1616-1617? Alte Pinakothek, Munich). Rubens and his atelier executed a large number of mythological and religious paintings for patrons all over Europe. Rubenss mature style, with its exceedingly rich colors, dynamic compositions, and voluptuous female forms, is the peak of northern baroque painting and is exemplified by his famous series of 21 huge canvases, The Life of Marie de M ©dicis (162 1-1625, Louvre, Paris). Among Rubenss pupils, his most worthy successor was Anthony van Dyck, whose specialty was elegant portraiture, such as Portrait of Charles I in Hunting Dress (1635, Louvre). Jacob Jordaens and Adriaen Brouwer are best known for their convincing peasant genre scenes, which are also the subjects of Flemish artist David Teniers and Dutch artist Adriaen van Ostade. Flemish baroque sculptors often derived inspiration from Italian art. Franpis Duquesnoy worked with Bernini in Rome, executing the gigantic Saint Andrew in Saint Peters in 1633. The style of the work of Artus Quellinus was derived from Italy nd from Rubens. Italian taste is equally present in architecture, as in the former Jesuit church of Saint Charles Borromeo (1615-1621, now a museum), in Antwerp, Belgium. Dutch Baroque At the turn of the 17th century many Dutch artists, such as Hendrik Goltzius, were still working in the Mannerist idiom. Caraveggesque baroque was brought to the Netherlands when several artists, including Gerrit van Honthorst and Hendrik Terbrugghen, returned to their homeland from Italy; by the 1620s naturalism was entrenched in Utrecht. In that decade and the next Frans Hals produced portraits emarkable for their deft brushwork, informality, and naturalness. Many of Halss paintings are of local militia companies, as is The Night Watch (1642, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) by the greatest Dutch baroque master, Rembrandt. Unlike most Dutch artists, Rembrandt painted a wide variety of subjects†portraiture, history, mythology, religious scenes, and landscape†with unmatched virtuosity. His handling of glowing light against dark backgrounds, his deft, flickering brushwork in thick paint, his truthful but sympathetic rendering of his subjects are among the virtues that place Rembrandt in the highest rank of painters. His fame as a graphic artist is also unsurpassed. The creation of a convincing psychological ambience and masterly evocation of shimmering light effects distinguish the midcentury work of Jan Vermeer; his meticulous draftsmanship and delicate handling of pigment, often imitated, are unique. Landscape, still life, animal painting, and architectural views now became important genres in Dutch baroque painting. Until about 1650, Dutch sculpture remained Mannerist; a strongly baroque exuberance was then introduced by Flemish sculptors, most notably by Quellinus ith his work for the interior and exterior of the Amsterdam Town Hall. The building, now the Royal Palace, was begun in 1648 to the plans of Jacob van Campen. It epitomizes the pervasive taste of the time for a classicism based on the published designs of the 16th-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio. C English Baroque Baroque painting in England was dominated by the presence of Rubens and van Dyck, who inspired an entire generation of portraitists. British sculpture was influenced equally by Italian and Flemish styles. The architect Inigo Jones studied the classicism of Andrea Palladio in Italy, as is evident in his Banqueting House (1619-1622, London), with a spectacular ceiling painting, Allegory of Peace and War (1629), by Rubens. Sir Christopher Wren also Journeyed to Italy, and his plans for Saint Pauls Cathedral (begun 1675, London) reveal his study of Bramante, Borromini, and other Italian architects. Wren, who was in charge of the rebuilding of London after the fire of 1666, influenced the course of architecture in England and its North American colonies for over a century. D French Baroque At the start of the 17th century in France, the Mannerist school of Fontainebleau was till active in commissions for the Palace of Fontainebleau, where projects such as the decoration of the Chapel of Trinity with paintings (1619) by Martin Fr ©minet continued earlier traditions. Mannerism is also found in the prints of Jacques Callot and Jacques Bellange. The candlelit scenes of Georges de La Tour, however, suggest Caravaggios influence. Baroque naturalism arrived with artists such as Valentin de Boulogne, who had lived in Italy and with those who had contact with Flemish realism, such as the Le Nain brothers and Philippe de Champaigne. Of greatest mportance tor the history ot French baroque painting is the classicism ot Nicolas Poussin. Although he lived for most of his creative life in Rome, Poussins impact† and that of his fellow expatriate Claude Lorrain†in his own land was enormous. Late in the century classicism combined with a high baroque manner in Charles Lebruns frescoes at the Palace of Versailles. In the late baroque paintings of Antoine Coypel, the pervasive influence of Rubens is strongly apparent, especially in those for the Royal Chapel of Versailles. The sculpture of Pierre Puget is also in the high baroque style; Franpis Girardon and Antoine Coysevox expressed a marked classicism in monumental sculptures for the king. Girardons group Apollo and the Nymphs (1666-1672), in the Grotto of Thetis at Versailles, is indicative of the French taste for a chaste version of the antique. The Palace of Versailles (begun 1669), created for Louis XIV†the Sun King†by Louis Le Vau, Andr © Le Notre, and Charles Lebrun, is the single most important French baroque architectural monument. It is dedicated to the Sun King, and its measured classical forms, vast and complex gardens, and sumptuous interiors glorify the power f the monarchy; it gave rise to imitations by dozens of other rulers throughout Europe. A similarly grandiose project was the enlargement (1660s-1670s) of the Louvre by Le Vau, Lebrun, Claude Perrault, and others, a work of great restraint and subtlety. E Austrian and German Baroque Although political events†the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) in Germany and the Turkish presence in Austria†prevented baroque art in those countries from truly flourishing until the 18th century, some 17th-century artists of merit did emerge. Two masters of German baroque painting are Adam Elsheimer, who moved to Rome in 600, worked in a classical manner and was strongly influenced by Italian painters, and Johann Liss, who traveled to Venice in 1621 and worked there and in Rome.